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OK, please disregard, I figured out that indeed Cloudflare was caching the image. I went to Cloudflare and cleared the cache manually.
For the sake of helping others, I figured this out by using Firefox’s Developer Tools. I went under the Network tab, filtered on images, and clicked the culprit image. On the right side, it shows the server where the content is being delivered from. I do not recall asking Cloudflare to cache this content, so I will need to figure out what it’s doing that.